juliana

There is solid ground for the assumption that life is a function from the
interaction of predominantly proteins and nucleic acids. Such an
understanding of life can be accepted as the most plausible. The question
is — how has it been organized and how has it functioned during the period
of the pre-cell evolution? The multitude of unknown circumstances of that
period have “favoured” the generation of differing opinions and hypotheses
that have on their part produced serious discussions.
Some authors tend to give advantage to proteins, others — to nucleic
acids. The dispute on that problem has become so “heated” that scientists
like Oparin and Eigen refer to it as one devoid of sense just like “the hen
and the egg” argument.
In his book “Self-Organization of Matter and Evolution of the Biological
Macromoleculs” Manfred Eigen (1973) has written: “The astounding
discoveries of molecular biology have led to the situation that the above-mentioned
problem is often formulated in this way: which has arisen earlier
— proteins or DNA? The modern variation of the old problem of “the hen
and the egg”. In this form this problem if related to the complex
relationships of proteins and nucleic acids in modern living cells is incorrect
and leads to an absurd, because there cannot exist an organized “function”
if there is no “information” and this “information” makes only sense through
the “function” it encodes”. Further on the author supports his speculations
by a scheme of the contemporary biosynthetic cycle of the proteins, in
which nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) by the help of ribosomes and enzymes
code for and build polypeptide chains. This scheme will be considered in
Section 2. 7 (Proteins).
In my opinion the dispute itself is not absurd or devoid of sense but it is
the way the question is put. The hen and the egg are two phases of the life
cycle of one and the same higher organism that has emerged at a much later
stage of the evolution of living organisms as is the case with the silkworm for
example, where the phases are four — butterfly, egg, caterpillar and pupa. In
the case of the proteins and nucleic acids we are facing the decipherment of
a long abiogenic evolutionary process that has taken place in the conditions
of a prebiotic atmosphere and hydrosphere in the absence of the complex
biological mechanisms of replications, translation and synthesis of
polypeptide chains. The shedding of light on the question of how and in what
succession the first high-molecular organic compounds have arisen thus
enabling the build-up of the living organisms is of particular importance for the
disclosure of the “secrets” of life organization.
That is why the problem of which exactly organic substances (proteins
or nucleic acids) have been the first precursors of life is allotted such a
serious attention. What F. Engels has said that “life is mode of existence of
protein bodies” is not a phrase deprived of sense and is especially true for
the initial stages of life generation. It is widely acknowledged that proteins
form the skeleton of all structures making up the living organisms and as
enzymes they participate in the course of almost all vital processes.

under extreme conditions (temperatures higher than 100°C) in the depths of
oceans and seas where water under the action of the high pressure is in a
liquid state (see Brock, 1985). All this has a biochemical ground that should
be the subject of further studies.

Evolution of the Cel

Section 1.6. No matter what is the origin of life — whether engendered on
the Earth or brought over from other planets of the Universe in
the “cool cabins” of meteorites or “on the wings of light rays”, its beginning
is in the pre-cell and cell structures. Since the cell underlies the building of
all living organisms inhabiting the planet Earth, its evolution can be
regarded as quintessential in the evolution of living matter from lifeless
matter. Evolutionary development of the cell is greatly diversified owing to
the inexhaustible capacities of matter which has generated it. The great
interest provoked by this problem imposes a closer look into some of the
most important stages of its historical development.

Pre-Cell Evolution
This is for now the least clear stage of the evolutionary development of
living matter and of the emergence of the first cell structures. The difficulties
encountered in the reproduction in laboratory conditions mentioned in
Section 1. 4 and the absence of reliable fossil findings from that period are
the reasons for the fact that the initial stages of their formation and
organization cannot be defined i.e. it is impossible to state how the
“transition from chaos to orderliness has occurred”. This is the first “white
spot” in biology.
Nevertheless, there is a quite sufficient amount of scientific
argumentation concerning that period. At the basis of this phenomenon lies
the allmighty chemical evolution that has led to the formation of organic
compounds serving as construction elements of living nature. A special
significance is attributed to carbon whose atoms have the capacity to bind
and form long chains which together with hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
form amino acids — the main protein components.
It is quite logical to assume that at the initial stages of the proteinoid
formation not all of the 20 amino acids known at present day to form the
proteins have taken part. There have been formed emulsion drops similar
to the coacervates, separated from the hydrosphere because of differences
in their physicochemical properties. In this way open systems interacting
with the environment have been generated, known by the appropriate term
— “protobionts”. This period has lasted for millions, probably billions of
years until the specific mechanisms for their self-reproduction have arisen.

other planets to have proved unsuited for it. If this is true, the assumption
that somewhere in the Universe on a given planet as the result from a
continuous evolution life has emerged should not be rejected. In this train of
thought most probably has Arrhenius been speculating admiring the sky
studded with billions starts”.
In the opinion of Arrhenius the low temperatures in space do not
have a deleterious influence on the “living germs” at the time of their
protracted and long journeys. This thesis of his is based on the results
from experiments carried out in 1906 at Jenner’s Institute in London
which have shown that bacterial spores left for 20 hours at a temperature
of minus 252°C (i.e. in the conditions of liquid hydrogen) have not lost
their reproductive capacity. These data have helped him to state the
following: “Life can be passed endlessly from one Solar system to another
or from a planet to planet in the Solar system proper” (see Solovyov,
1990).
Svante Arrhenius’s idea confronted serious objections on the part of
many authors. One of its grave defects is the fact that the time factor is
grossly neglected accepting the 20-hour stay of bacterial spores at the low
temperatures quoted as a convincing proof for the preservation of their
reproductive capacity which is extremely little compared to the time needed
for their “long journeys” in space. Besides, the UV-ray action is also ignored
which is ubiquitous in space and lethal to any living entity.
With the development of the various branches of science and the
elaboration of research techniques the extraterrestrial origin of life becomes
ever less acceptable. As it will be shown further in the book there is no
reliable evidence indicating to the transfer of “life germs” to the Earth from
other celestial bodies. Regardless of that the hypothesis of the panspermia is
backed by a number of contemporary authors (Crick, 1968, 1981; Hoyle,
Wickramasinghe, 1979; Goldanskii, 1993, etc.). Its resistance is due largely
to the fact that it is neither proved nor totally refuted, and is constantly being
modified and renovated. Such for example are the modern speculations of
“direct panspermia” — the transfer of genetic material via hypothetical
settlers belonging to a supercivilisation (Crick, 1968), virus migration from
space (Hoyle, Wickramasinghe, 1979), etc.
It is, however, necessary to note that even if the panspermia theory is
proven it will not solve the problem of life origination, since it has somewhere
emerged for the first time and the question “how” remains unanswered. More
important in the case is how it has been formed and evolved and what the
limits and conditions under which it can be sustained are. The parameters of
the living entity are limited but they vary in a relatively broad range. Many
organisms (mainly plants and animals) live and develop normally at
temperatures of 20—40°C. Bacteria and unicellular algae are found not only
on the mountain peaks covered by unmelting snow but also in the waters of
thermal sources of temperatures over 80°C. Some of them can also exist

Let us resort to a simple example. If for the final preparation of the
popular gobelin “The Secret Dinner” a total of 1300 squares had to be
stitched by 520 000 stitches with threads of precisely defined colours for
which about a year is necessary, it is quite logical to assume that this
cannot be done in a day or two. This example, no matter how
unsuccessful it might be, a priori can testify to how important the time
factor is.
Up till now experimental reproduction of an organized living matter or
anything resembling a cell has not been accomplished. However, there is
no logic that such a possibility should be exluded in the future.

The “Panspermia” Hypothesis

Section 1.5. The alternative to the thesis of the earth origin of life is the
assumption that it was transferred to the Earth from other
celestial bodies by meteorites or cosmic dust. This view is reflected in the
hypothesis of the so-called panspermia (Greek: pan — all and spermia —
seed). Its historical development can be divided into two stages.
In 1865 the German physicist H. Richter (1865, 1870) has created
the hypothesis of the existence of “living germs” in space that could be
carried via meteorites thus reaching other celestial bodies finally finding
favourable conditions for their development. This idea was supported and
elaborated further on by a number of noted scientists such as J. von
Liebig, H. Helmholtz, W. Thomson, Ph. van Tieghem, etc. Their
presumption is that the meteorites passing through the earth atmosphere
are only heated on their surface and remain cool inside where germs of
organisms originating from other planets can be preserved and
transported to the Earth. Since the efforts to detect such viable germs (or
even their dead remains) proved to be unsuccessful this hypothesis has
gradually been ignored.
Its revival is associated with the Swedish physicochemist S. Arrhenius
(1908) who has launched the idea that spores from other planets can be
spread with space dust particles under the pressure of light rays and finding
themselves in favourable conditions on other planets they could give rise to
further development.
In his book “Svante Arrhenius” Solovyov (1990) has made an attempt
to present the thoughts and speculations of Arrhenius that have inspired
the “revival” of the panspermia hypothesis. “At first — says the author —
when based on data from chemical analysis of meteorites and after that by
spectral analyses it was proven that only on the Earth a planet of the Solar
system which is analogous to the others in its chemical and physical
composition there is life, the question of ubiquity of the organic world has
inevitably arisen in his mind. So it is not possible for only one planet alone
to have engendered organic and after that self-conscious life, and all the

The studies of Fox and Harada throw light on a very substantial aspect of the
problem of the origin of life — the emergence of organic compounds, amino
acids respectively, has taken place in the initial stages of the Earth formation (when
temperatures were much higher and UV-light has undisturbed and in great profusion
reached the earth surface) or at a later phase at comparatively lower temperatures
(100—300°C) in the presence of primeval atmosphere and suitable hydrosphere. The
second possibility which was actually launched by them gives grounds for
thought. It directed the search for life origins not only to the World Ocean but
also to other smaller hot water sources around volcanoes, which at that time have
abounded in seas and on the earth surface accompanied by powerful irradiations of all
sorts and electric discharges. A special attention must be paid to the
attempts to accomplish abiogenic synthesis of high-molecular organic compounds and
to create “something living” or “some kind of an independently existing organism” in
laboratory conditions, which was mentioned by Haldane (1929). This is a long-lived
human dream and its realization would be the pinnacle of the human genius. But here
the great question arises: is it possible to have it accomplished?
It is hard to give a definite answer to that question, especially if it were to be
positive, since the very goal of obtaining a live object for a comparatively short time
and in the presence of already existing
living creatures would lie somewhere in the sphere of the impossible. To
reproduce life that has been created by nature for billions of years
incorporating in itself huge numbers of naturally selected atoms and
molecules bound by energy defined chemical bonds into high-molecular
organic substances making up the living systems that have survived the
severe competition in the struggle for existence in the evolutionary process
is probably the hardest task for the researcher.

imagen a, b, c

figure 1–6. Proteinoid micro-spheres: (a) — a general picture 
of single and grouped 
microspheres; (b) — associated 
 microspheres; (c) — diads at 
increased pH (After Fox, 1965). 

and other phosphates, including ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). The most
active form was the one of the polyphosphoric acid, in the presence of
which at a temperature of 70°C a polymer of 15 amino acids was obtained.
Depending on the temperature, the mean molecular weight has been
growing from 3600 at 160°C to 8600 at 200°C.
By thermal polymerization Fox and Harada have obtained various
peptides that vary in composition, molecular weight and other physicochemical
properties. One of the essential properties of the synthesized
product is its morphogenesis, i.e. the tendency to formation of
microspheres with sizes close to these of bacteria (Fig. 1–6).

aspartic acid and α-amino-n-butyric acid. The identification of the last two
acids was not very certain according to the author’s opinion since the
spotes were quite weak. According to him the obtained amino acids cannot
originate from living organisms since their growth would have been stopped
by the high temperature and the added at the end of the experiment
mercury dichloride (HgCl₂), as well as by the addition of barium base
[Ba(OH)₂] and sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) at the time of analysis.

The results from Miller’s experiment were confirmed and
supplemented by new syntheses of other scientists. Various amino acids,
aldehydes, amines, amides, carbohydrates, purine and pyrimidine
bases, polypeptides, polynucleotides and other important biological
compounds have been obtained. Except the basic components of the
gas mixture of methane, ammonia and hydrogen, carbon oxide, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen, phosphoric compounds, and other
compounds have also been used. As energy sources along with the spark
and silent electric discharges, UVlight, radioactive irradiations, γ- and βrays,
rapid neutrones and X-rays have been reported in the Proceedings of several
International conferences: the first one — on the origin of life on Earth held in
Moscow in 1957 (Proceedings……, 1959); the second — on the origin of prebiological
systems and their molecular mechanisms, held in Wakulla Springs, Florida in 1963
(Proceedings…., 1965); the Congress in Espoo, Finland in 1988 (TwentySeventh…., 1989), etc.
A detailed review on this problem is made by Oró at al. (1990).

A serious tribute in that trend represent the studies of Fox and Harada
(Fox, 1960; Fox, Harada, 1960,1961; Harada, Fox, 1964) related to the
thermal polycondensation of amino acids and the obtaining of polypeptides
in the absence of nucleotide code. According to these authors a synthesis
of amino acids as well as of more complex proteinoids can be achieved by
simple methods in the conditions of normal atmospheric pressure and a
temperature of the order of 100—210°C. Under such conditions in the
presence of significant quantities of aspartic and glutamic acids, a
spontaneous polymerization of almost all amino acids takes place leading
to the formation of polypeptides of a molecular weight from 3000 to 9000
daltones. This process is enhanced by the addition of polyphosphoric acid

Figure 1–5. An apparatus for abiogenic synthesis under conditions resembling the supposed ones in the primeval 
earth atmosphere (Adapted after Miller, 
1953).

Attempts for Abiogenic Synthesis of Organic Compounds

Section 1.4. In the second half of the XX century the interest towards the
initial origination of living matter has increased. It became clear that the key
to the solution of this problem is the discovery of the conditions and
prerequisites that have led to the formation of the initial organic
compounds. That is why the efforts of researchers in that field were
conducted in view of performing laboratory experiments for the synthesis of
organic compounds from inorganic ones under conditions resembling those
in the prebiological earth atmosphere.
The first successful experiment for such a synthesis has been carried out
by Stanley Miller at the University of Chicago, USA (Miller, 1953). With this
experiment he actually confirmed Oparin’s idea (Oparin, 1936, 1938)
developed by Bernal (1951) and Urey (1952) that prebiotic atmosphere had
contained methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), molecular hydrogen (H₂) and water
(H₂O), instead of carbon dioxide (CO₂), molecular nitrogen (N₂) and oxygen
(O₂) as it was thought before. In the device constructed for the purpose (Fig.
1–5) Miller has subjected to the action of continuous electric discharges for a
week a permanently circulating gaseous mixture of definite quantities of CH₄,
NH₃, H₂ and water heated till boiling.
The obtained compounds have accumulated in the water phase and by
gas chromatography have been identified as glycine, α- and β-alanine,

Most probably not all chemical elements existing in
the Universe, Sun and Earth (Table 1) have taken part in the
build-up of living organisms. Their composition differs a lot
from non-living nature which indicates to a chemistry of a
special type. Living entities contain only a definite number
of chemical elements. Our knowledge on that matter is
constantly being enriched and undergoes changes including
new elements. Only before several decades it was thought
that the basic organic elementsare four — carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). Later on two
others were added — phosphorus (P) and sulphur
(S). The rest of the elements participate in much smaller
quantities and depen-ding on their percentage con-tent they
are divided into macroelements (0.5—1%) and microelements (0.01—0.001%).

Figure 1–4. Structure of water. The general shape of the water molecule is governed by
the shapes of the outer electron orbitals of the oxygen atom. These orbitals, like the bonding
orbitals of carbons, are roughly tetrahedral in shape: a single hydrogen atom is placed at
two corners and unshared electrons at the other two. Because the oxygen nucleus
attracts electrons more than hydrogen does, the water molecule is dipolar. Thus, the hydrogen
nuclei are slightly positively charged and the oxygen nucleus slightly negatively
charged. Other water molecules can fleetingly join together to create a lattice of water
molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. This short-lived ensemble has been called a
flickering cluster, which represent a prerequisite for emergence of living matter.

of the material world. Let us only consider two of the classical examples
that are found in the literature.
Based on the properties of a great number of the chemical elements
and compounds to form whimsical crystals of a strictly defined structure
which can incorporate various molecules from their environment and grow
in size, they express the view that there exist metabolism and reproduction
in saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions and in the frozen water drops
in frost and snow-flake formation. Here also belongs the case of the porous
platinum which comparatively easily degrades hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to
oxygen and water as a result of the uptake of substances, their
disintegration and release in the surroundings.
The analysis of the above-mentioned examples does not give grounds to
accept that these processes can qualify for the terms of “metabolism” and
“reproduction” from a biological point of view. They are only responsive to the
action of the laws of physics and chemistry thus substantially differing from the
processes immanent to living nature. Crystals no matter how enchanting in
shape and how various in structure are not living entities. And porous platinum
after an unlimited number of participations in the H₂O₂ degradation remains a
piece of lifeless metal preserving its initial weight unaltered.
It is necessary to remind the followers of the mechanistic interpretations
of the differences between living and non-living matter the views of
Zuckerkandl and Pauling (1965) that among all natural systems only living
matter is distinct for the fact that regardless of the numerous substantial
changes it has undergone, it contains the greatest amount of information
reflecting its history. This according to Berry and Jensen (1988) is
accomplished through the biochemical pathways. Genetic information
which can be most categorically called biological memory (having
reached its highest degree of development in man) is only inherent in living
nature with its amazing variety of forms.
Water (Fig. 1–4) lies at the basis of all bioprocesses. In most living
organisms it accounts for about 70—85%, reaching in some cases 98% of
their total weight. Water is a special natural compound. Designating it with
a capital letter Phales of Millet has said of it: “Water — this is the best there
is. Everything is begot from Water and everything more substantial is a
derivative of Water!” (cited by Kolyassnikov, 1993). The role of water in the
origination of life remains unclear till the present time of quantum chemistry
point of view.
Let us leave the problem of water genesis and its abundance on Earth
and why it is not present or is in scarce quantities on the other planets to
the geochemists and astrophysicists. The essential premise here is that
without water there is no life and it can be assumed as the main
prerequisite for its rise and development on our planet.